Publicado 15-09-2026
Palabras clave
- fotografía de atrocidad,
- propaganda política,
- guerras de descolonización,
- acción psicológica,
- memoria pública
Derechos de autor 2026 Alfonso Dias Ramos

Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
Cómo citar
Datos de los fondos
-
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
Números de la subvención 2023.11076.TENURE.195 -
Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
Números de la subvención PID2023-146822NB-I00
Resumen
Este artículo analiza uno de los momentos más decisivos, aunque menos conocidos, de la creciente relación entre el mundo visual y la violencia política en la era contemporánea: la relación entre las imágenes violentas y las guerras de descolonización en África de mediados del siglo xx y cómo esta relación determinó la interpretación, la imaginación y la memoria de estos acontecimientos históricos bajo el signo de la «ultraviolencia». A partir de tres casos de estudio diferentes que, de manera extraña, han sido poco investigados —Argelia en 1957, Kenia en 1953 y Angola en 1961—, se realiza un análisis comparativo de la retórica visual de la atrocidad en el contexto de la propaganda política y acción psicológica en las guerras de descolonización, lo cual no solo tuvo un impacto decisivo en la historia oficial y la memoria pública de estos eventos, sino que también presenta paralelismos con la cultura visual de la polarización política actual.
Descargas
Referencias
- Alexandre, Valentim: Os Desastres da Guerra. Portugal e as Revoltas em Angola (1961: janeiro a abril), Lisboa, Temas e Debates-Círculo de Leitores, 2021.
- Allan, Stuart, y Allbeson, Tom: Conflicting Images. Histories of War Photography in the News, New York, Routledge, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203129852
- Anderson, David: Histories of the Hanged. The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire, New York, W. W. Norton, 2005.
- Andringa, Diana: «Crescer em tempo de guerra», en Aniceto Afonso y Carlos de Matos Gomes (coords.): Guerra colonial, Lisboa, Notícias Editorial, 2000, pp. 334-335.
- Assouline, Pierre: Henri Cartier-Bresson, l’oeil du siècle, Paris, Plon, 1999.
- Austen, Ralph A.: Modern Imperialism, Western Overseas Expansion, and its Aftermath, 1776-1965, Lexington, Heath and Company, 1969.
- Bandeira Jerónimo, Miguel (coord.): O Império colonial em questão (sécs. XIX-XX). Poderes, saberes e instituições, Lisboa, Edições 70, 2012.
- Bandel, Jan-Frederik: «Das Malheur. Kongo-Müller und die Proteste gegen “Africa Addio”», IZ3W, 287 (2005), pp. 37-41.
- Barker, Christopher: The Arms of the Infinite. Elizabeth Smart and George Barker, Waterloo, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51644/9781554583072
- Barnett, Don: Mau Mau. The Structural Integration and Disintegration of Aberdare Guerilla Forces, Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1963.
- Beaugé, Florence: «Torturée par l’armée française en Algérie, “Lila” recherche l’homme qui l’a sauvée», Le Monde, 20 de junio de 2000, https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/2000/06/20/torturee-par-l-armee-francaise-en-algerie-lila-recherche-l-homme-qui-l-a-sauvee_3612185_1819218.html.
- Benenson, Peter: Persecution 1961, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1961.
- Bigeard, Marcel-Maurice: J’ai mal à la France, Paris, Editions du Polygone, 2001.
- Bourdieu, Pierre, y Sayad, Abdelmalek: Le Déracinement. La crise de l’agriculture traditionnelle en Algérie, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1964.
- Bracco, Hélène: Pour avoir dit non. Actes de refus dans la guerre d’Algérie 1954-1962, Paris, Méditerranée, 2003.
- Branche, Raphaëlle: La torture et l’armée française pendant la guerre d’Algérie, 1954-1962, Paris, Gallimard, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14375/NP.9782070469208
- Bresson, Gilles, y Lionet, Christian: Le Pen. Biographie, Paris, Seuil, 1994.
- Brown, David Maughan: Land, Freedom and Fiction. History and Ideology in Kenya, London, Zed Books, 2017.
- Butler, Judith: Frames of War. When Is Life Grievable?, London, Verso, 2010.
- Cabral, Amílcar: «A Situation of Permanent Violence», 1.ª ed. 1970, en Aquino de Bragança e Immanuel Wallerstein (coords.): The African Liberation Reader, vol. 2, The National Liberation Movements, London, Zed Press, 1982, pp. 63-65.
- Carothers, John Colin: The Psychology of Mau-Mau, Nairobi, Government Printer, 1955.
- Carruthers, Susan L.: Winning Hearts and Minds. British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counterinsurgency, 1944-1960, London, Leicester University Press, 1995.
- Carruthers, Susan L., y Stewart, Ian (coords.): War, Culture, and the Media, Trowbridge, Flicks Books, 1996.
- César, Amândio: Angola 1961, Lisboa, Verbo, 1961.
- Charpier, Frédéric: Les plastiqueurs. Une histoire secrete de l’extrême droite, Paris, La Découverte, 2018.
- Chominot, Marie: Guerre des images, guerre sans image? Pratiques et usages de la photographie pendant la guerre d’indépendance algérienne, 1954-1962, tesis doctoral, Université Paris VIII, 2008, https://theses.fr/2008PA082937. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/insaniyat.2058
- Chominot, Marie, y Ledoux, Sébastien (coords.): Algérie. La guerre prise de vues, Paris, CNRS Éditions, 2024.
- Connelly, Matthew: A Diplomatic Revolution. Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era, New York, Oxford University Press, 2002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195145137.001.0001
- Coombes, Annie E.: «Photography against the Grain. Rethinking the Colonial Archive in Kenyan Museums», World Art, 6 (2016), pp. 61-83, https://doi.org/rckc. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21500894.2015.1126853
- Corradini, Stephen: Chief Luka and the Lari Massacre. Contrary Notions of Kikuyu Land Tenure and the Mau Mau War, Madison, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1999.
- Didi-Huberman, Georges: Images in Spite of All: Four Photographs from Auschwitz, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008.
- Eco, Umberto: Il superuomo di massa. Retorica e ideologia nel romanzo popolare, Milano, Cooperativa Scrittori, 1976.
- Elkins, Caroline: Imperial Reckoning. The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 2005.
- Fabre, Thierry, et al.: «Images de guerre, guerre des images», La pensée de midi, 9 (2002), pp. 110-123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/lpm.009.0110
- Fanon, Frantz: L’an V de la révolution algérienne, Paris, François Maspero, 1959.
- Fanon, Frantz: Les damnés de la terre, Paris, François Maspero, 1961.
- Fouéré, Marie-Aude: «Africa Addio, the Revolution, and the Ambiguities of Remembrance in Contemporary Zanzibar», en William Cunningham Bissell y Marie-Aude Fouéré (coords.): Social Memory, Silenced Voices, and Political Struggle. Remembering the Revolution in Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam, Mkuki na Nyota, 2018, pp. 311-334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh8r429.16
- French, David: The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, 1945-1967, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587964.001.0001
- Furedi, Frank: The Mau Mau in Perspective, London, James Currey, 1989.
- Gavaghan, Terence: Of Lions and Dung Beetles, Devon, Arthur H. Stockwell, 1999.
- Goodall, Mark: Sweet & Savage. The World Through the Shockumentary Film Lens, London, Headpress, 2006.
- Guerra, João Paulo: Memória das guerras coloniais, Porto, Afrontamento, 1994.
- Iglezias, Luiz: A verdade sôbre Angola, Rio de Janeiro, Gráfica Nossa Senhora de Fátima, 1961.
- Jacobson, Colin: Underexposed. Censored Pictures and Hidden History, London, Vision On, 2002.
- Kabiro, Ngugi: The Man in the Middle. The Story of Ngugi Kabiro, Richmond, LSM Information Center, 1973.
- Keller, Richard C.: Colonial Madness, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2007.
- Kessel, Patrick: Guerre d’Algérie. Écrits censurés, saisis, refusés 1956-1960-1961, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2002.
- Klose, Fabian: Human Rights in the Shadow of Colonial Violence. The Wars of Independence in Kenya and Algeria, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812207828
- Le Pen, Jean-Marie: Les Français d’abord, Paris, Carrère-Michel Lafon, 1984.
- Leigh, Ione: In the Shadow of the Mau Mau, London, W. H. Allen, 1954.
- Linfield, Susie: The Cruel Radiance. Photography and Political Violence, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226482521.001.0001
- Linstrum, Erik: «Facts about Atrocity. Reporting Colonial Violence in Postwar Britain», History Workshop Journal, 84 (2017), pp. 108-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/hwj/dbx032
- Lopes, Fernando Fradinho: O alferes Eduardo, Lisboa, Círculo dos Leitores, 2000.
- Malan, Rian: My Traitor’s Heart, New York, Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990.
- Martín Luque, Alba: Disparando imágenes. Una historia visual de la guerra de descolonización del África portuguesa contada desde el caso de estudio del Frente de Liberación de Mozambique (FRELIMO), 1955-1975, tesis doctoral, European University Institute, 2022.
- Mateus, Dalila Cabrita, y Mateus, Álvaro: Angola 61. Guerra Colonial: causas e consequências, Lisboa, Leya, 2011.
- Miller, Russell: Magnum. Fifty Years at the Front Line of History, New York, Grove Press, 1998.
- Navarro, Hugo: «Os massacres de 1961 no Norte de Angola», O Diabo, 16 de julio de 2015.
- Osborne, Myles: «“The Rooting Out of the Mau Mau From the Minds of the Kikuyu is a Formidable Task”. Propaganda and the Mau Mau War», Journal of African History, 56(1), 2015, pp. 77-97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002185371400067X
- Pelissier, René: «État de la littérature militaire relative à l’Afrique australe portugaise», Revue Française d’Études Politiques Africaines, 74 (1972), pp. 77-78.
- Peterson, Terence G.: Revolutionary Warfare. How the Algerian War Made Modern Counterinsurgency, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501776960.001.0001
- Pires, Pedro; Oliveira, Mário de, y Ferreira, Orbelino G.: Braseiro da norte. Diário dos primeiros 150 dias de terrorismo nas terras de Angola, s. l., edição dos autores, 1963.
- Poznanski-Benhamou, Daphna: Les enfants de la guerre d’Algérie. Le grand départ: essai-témoignage, Paris, Ramsay, 2023.
- Quinn, Ben, y Milmo, Dan: «How the Far Right is Weaponising AI-Generated Content in Europe», Guardian, 26 de noviembre de 2024.
- Ramada Curto, Diogo; Pinto da Cruz, Bernardo, y Furtado, Teresa: Políticas Coloniais em Tempo de Revoltas. Angola circa 1961, Lisboa, Afrontamento, 2016.
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «Angola 1961, o horror das imagens», en Filipa Lowndes Vicente (coord.): O império da visão. Fotografia no contexto colonial português (1860-1960), Lisboa, Edições 70, 2014, pp. 397-434.
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «“Rarely penetrated by camera or film”. NBC’s Angola. Journey to War (1961)», en Maria do Carmo Piçarra y Teresa Castro (coords.): (Re)Imagining African Independence. Film, Visual Arts and the Fall of the Portuguese Empire, London, Peter Lang, 2017, pp. 111-130.
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «The Fugitive Image: Colonial Terror and Contemporary Art», Observatorio (OBS*) Journal, número especial (2020), pp. 73-87.
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «Horácio Caio, Angola. Os Dias do Desespero (1961)», en Filomena Serra (coord.): Fotografia impressa e propaganda em Portugal no Estado Novo, Xixón, Muga, 2021, pp. 216-219.
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «Images that Kill: Counterinsurgency and Photography in Angola Circa 1961», en Afonso Dias Ramos y Filipa Lowndes Vicente (coords.): Photography in Portuguese Colonial Africa, 1860-1975, Cham, Palgrave Macmillan, 2023, pp. 325-368. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27795-5_12
- Ramos, Afonso Dias: «La exposición de atrocidades: una cuestión colonial», en Bruno Marques, Helena Barranha y Pilar Irala Hortal (coords.): Estudo, digitalização e divulgação de coleções, Lisboa, Arquivo Municipal de Lisboa, Fotográfico, 2025, pp. 203-217.
- Reynaud, Michel (coord.): Elles et eux et l’Algérie, Paris, Tiresias, 2004.
- Ribeiro de Meneses, Filipe, y McNamara, Robert: The White Redoubt, the Great Powers and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1960-1980, London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-44758-6
- Riceputi, Fabrice: «Au-delà du mur. Enquête sur deux photos de la torture en Algérie», Textures du temps, 18 de junio de 2020.
- Riceputi, Fabrice: Le Pen et la torture. Alger, 1957, l’histoire contre l’oubli, Paris, Le passager clandestin, 2024.
- Riley, Charlotte Lydia: Imperial Island. An Alternative History of the British Empire, London, Random House, 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674296923
- Rondeau, Jean-Pierre (coord.): Crimes et attentats FLN en Algérie française, Paris, Dualpha, 2011.
- S. a: «Goldberg Criticizes “Africa Addio” Film», The New York Times, 21 de marzo de 1967, https://www.nytimes.com/1967/03/21/archives/goldberg-criticizes-africa-addio-film.html.
- Santos, Eduardo dos: Maza. Elementos da etno-história para a interpretação do terrorismo no noroeste de Angola, Lisboa, E. Santos, 1965.
- Schuyler, Philippa: Who killed the Congo?, New York, Devin-Adair Co., 1962.
- Shatz, Adam: The Rebel’s Clinic. The Revolutionary Lives of Frantz Fanon, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2024.
- Shipka, Danny: Perverse Titillation. The Exploitation Cinema of Italy, Spain and France, 1960-1980, Jefferson, McFarland, 2013.
- Slobodian, Quinn: «Corpse Polemics», en Quinn Slobodian: Foreign Front. Third World Politics in Sixties West Germany, Durham, Duke University Press, 2012, pp. 135-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822395041-006
- Soustelle, Jacques: Vingt-huit ans de gaullisme, Paris, La Table Ronde, 1968.
- Stoneham, Charles Thurley: Mau Mau, London, Museum Press, 1953.
- Teixeira, Bernardo: The Fabric of Terror. Three Days in Angola, New York, Devin-Adair, 1965.
- Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa: Homecoming, London, Heinemann, 1972.
- Tomaselli, Keyan: The Cinema of Apartheid. Race and Class in South African Film, Chicago, Smyrna-Lake View Press, 1989.
- Varenne, Antoine: Le Mur, le Kabyle et le marin, Paris, Viviane Hamy, 2011.
- Ward, Stuart: Untied Kingdom. A Global History of the End of Britain, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316536322
- Worsley, Peter: An Academic Skating on Thin Ice, Oxford, Berghahn Books, 2008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3167/9781845453701
- Yowell, Jack: Mau Mau. A Pictorial Record. A Collection of Photographs Recording Kenya’s Battle against Mau Mau, Nairobi, The English Press, 1953.
- Zink, Michel: Bérets Noirs, Bérets Rouges, Paris, Éditions de Fallois, 2018.